Off-grid electrification is nothing new. Diesel- or gasoline-fuelled mini-grid and standalone off-grid generation systems are well established in many locations. Many small islands, for example in Indonesia, the Philippines and China, rely on diesel generation for electricity. Some 108 isolated diesel grids, from 46 operators, are in operation in the Philippines alone. In Africa, Mali has had probably more success than any other African country in the development of isolated mini-grids, with more than 200 mostly small diesel mini-grids in operation. Increasingly, these diesel installations are being supplemented with renewable technologies to create hybrid mini-grids.
Renewable sources are being utilised more and more in mini-grid and standalone off-grid situations. A review of research by the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) suggests that small-scale hydropower, for example, is currently the largest generation source for mini-grids.1 This is common in countries